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Once you have got to grips with the fundamentals of a language (pronunciation, orthography and basic grammar), you can concentrate on learning vocabulary. This is probably the most important and time-consuming part of learning a language. Below are a few techniques to help you with this task.
Associate the familiar with the unfamiliar
Try to find word or phrases in your L1 which sound like and if possible have a similar meaning to words in your L2. Build mental images or draw pictures based on the connections. For example, the Spanish for "ice" is hielo (m), which sounds like yellow. To remember this word imagine yellow ice. This is an enjoyable method because many of the associations you think up will be silly, absurd or bizarre.
Genders
To remember genders try picturing a Spanish-speaking region, divide it into two and place masculine nouns on one side and feminine words on the other. In the case of ice imagine the masculine half covered in yellow ice.
If your L2 has many genders, imagine a large building with many floors, assign a different gender to each floor and place words on the appropriate floor according to their gender.
Avoiding language mix ups
Associating words from each language you learn with places where they are spoken will help you to avoid getting your languages mixed up. For example, if you're learning French and Spanish, imagine a map of Europe and place the French words in France and the Spanish words in Spain. Alternatively you could imagine a map of North America and place the Spanish words in Mexico and the French words in Quebec.
Testing and revision
To ensure the words stick in your memory, test yourself on them at regular intervals. If you learn some new words in the morning for example, check that you can still remember them later that day, the next day, a week later and a month later. If you find some words hard to recall, try thinking up different associations for them. You may need to try several different associations before you find one that works.
Learn related words & phrases
When learning the word for hand, for example, try to learn related words, such as parts of the hand; actions of the hand; other parts of the body, and things you might wear on your hands. Also try to learn words with the same root and phrases which include the word hand.
As you learn more words you will start to spot connections between words. The more words you learn the easier you will find it to guess the meanings of new words.
Learn words in context
Learning long lists of unrelated words is boring, difficult and doesn't help you much when you come across those words in a different context. If you focus on learning words in the context you're most likely to find them, you're more likely to recognise them when you encounter them or need to use them again.
When learning food words, for example, think about when you'd be most likely to use them, i.e. when cooking, eating, shopping, etc, and learn other words related to those situations. Then try constructing sentences using the new words. Good dictionaries contain examples of usage which you can use as models for your own sentences.
As your knowledge of your L2 improves, using a monolingual dictionary is a good idea. This helps you to understand words through their meaning rather than relying on translations into your L1.
Practice reading as much as possible
A great way to build up you vocabulary is to have a go at reading books, magazines, newspapers or comics written in your L2. Ideally look for reading material covering topics you find interesting. When reading, try to guess the meanings of any words you don't know and then check them in a dictionary to see if your guesses were correct. You don't have to look up every unfamiliar word as long as you can get the gist of the text.
Online foreign language newpapers, magazines and other news sources
Online literature and audio books in many languages
Dual-language books, which are also known as parallel texts are a good way to get into literature in foreign languages. They usually have the original language on one page, and the translation on the opposite page. This safes you the trouble of looking up words in a dictionary.
Reading comic books, like Asterix and Tintin, is an effective and fun way to improve your reading comprehension and vocabulary. The pictures help you to follow the story when you can't understand all of the dialogue. The dialogues in the Tintin books tend to be longer and more serious than those in the Asterix books, which are full of puns and jokes.
A good way to expand your vocabulary is with the TeachMe! or Rosetta Stonelanguage courses. The TeachMe! courses are available for most of the major and minor languages of Europe and are very reasonably priced. The Rosetta Stonecourses are available for 26 languages from Arabic to Welsh. They are quite expensive but include a large amount of material, and are effective and fun to use.

Some tips on learning how to pronounce foreign languages and on improving your listening comprehsion.
Why good pronunciation is important
Learning how to pronounce a foreign language like a native speaker is difficult but not impossible. The better your pronunciation, the better people will understand you and the easier you will find it to understand them.
Tuning your ears and practising listening comprehension
Before you start trying to speak a foreign language, spend some time tuning your ears to its sounds and rhythms. You can do this by listening to the language as much as possible via the radio, TV, movies and native speakers in your neighbourhood. There are online radio stations in a wide variety of languages.
When you first try listening to your chosen language, you'll understand only a little or nothing at all, other than perhaps the names of people and places and the odd word, unless you're learning a language closely related to your L1. You may even find it difficult to believe that what you're listening to is a real language that people are able to converse in. However if you continue to listen to your L2 as much as possible, you will gradually become familiar with the the sounds and rhythms of the language and start to be able to pick out words and phrases. Eventually you'll be able to understand most if not all of what you hear in your L2.
There are a number of things you try to help you understand radio and TV broadcasts:
Listening to songs in your L2 is another way to improve your listening comprehension, especially if you have the lyrics written out so that you can follow them as you listen.
Learning pronunciation
With your ears tuned to the sounds and rythmns of your L2, you'll find learning how to pronounce the language less difficult.
If your language course includes a recorded pronunciation guide and exercises, listen to them until you have internalized all the points, but don't try to learn everything in one go. Beware of pronunciation guides that compare the sounds of your L2 with your L1. This can be misleading as the sounds, particularly the vowels, are often different.
Alternatively or additionally you could try finding a native speaker to help you with pronunciation. Ask them to speak slowly and to enunciate each word clearly. Then try to mimic them. Pay attention to the shapes their lips make, and also to their posture and any gestures they make.
Pimsleur language courses are very good at teaching you pronunciation: when introducing new words they break them up and teach you how to pronounce each syllable. Rosetta Stone courses are also good for learning pronunciation: they include the facility to record your voice and to visually compare it with a native speaker's voice.
Once you've got to grips with the pronunciation of your L2, you need to learn how to map the sounds to the written form of the language. This is fairly straight forward for languages like Italian, Spanish and German, which have consistent and regular spelling. Other languages, such as English, French and Danish, present more of a challenge with their irregular and somewhat chaotic spelling. Learning a language written with a different writing system adds an extra level of difficulty.
Better pronunciation through song
If you enjoy singing, try learning some songs in the language you're learning. This is a fun way to improve your pronunciation and vocabulary. You could also try learning to recite poems and stories. Listening to songs in your L2 is an enjoyable way to improve your listening comprehension, especially if you have the lyrics written out so that you can follow them as you listen.
Learning a bit about phonetics and phonology will enable you to pronounce your L2 better. A good way to start is to learn the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which can be used to represent all the phonemes of human speech and is therefore a reliable guide to pronunciation.
If you take the time to familiarise yourself with the IPA symbols, the phonemes they represent and how to pronounce them, you'll find this knowledge invaluable in your language learning. Particularly because the IPA is used to indicate pronunciation in some dictionaries and language textbooks.
In some cases you may not be able to hear particular phonemes, but you can be sure that you're pronouncing them correctly if you have your tongue, lips and teeth in the necessary positions and if your breath is moving in the right direction.
There's a good online introduction to phonetics and the IPA at:http://www.unil.ch/ling/english/phonetique/table-eng.html
Human speech uses a total of over 800 different phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. Babies can hear all possible phonemes but quickly develop a preference for the phonemes of their native language(s). Children tend to be very good mimics, an ability which enables them to learn foreign languages with a native accent. When learning foreign languages in later life, most people find it difficult to hear and pronounce phonemes not present in their native language. This is why most adult language learners have a foreign accent.
If you're learning a tonal language such as Chinese or Thai, you need to find a way to associate each syllable with the appropriate tone. One possible way to do this is to imagine a series of shelves, each one representing a tone. To assign tones to shelves you could number the shelves and/or imagine them having the shape of the tone contours. Each time you learn a new word, picture the word together with the thing, action, quality or whatever it represents on the appropriate shelf.
Here's an illustration of how this works for Mandarin Chinese using the tone contours:
In some tonal languages tones can change for various reasons. For example, in Mandarin when there are two third tones in a row, the first becomes a second tone. This process is know as "tone sandhi". You could incorporate these tone changes into the shelves with a series of snakes and ladders: the snakes indicate a higher tone changing to a lower tone and the ladders indicate the opposite.
Alternatively you could picture a building with one floor for each tone and use stairs/lifts for tone changes, or a town with separate districts for each tone and bridges and tunnels between the districts for tone changes.
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Possibly the most useful tools there are for learning a language are writing implements, such as pens and pencils, and something to write on, such as paper or a notebook. You can use them not only to make notes and lists of vocabulary, phrases, etc, but also to practise writing in your L2.
The range of other materials and tools available to help you with your language studies is huge. From language courses and dictionaries, to mp3 players and portable translators. All of them can help you in different ways, and your language learning goals will determine, to some extent, which ones are most useful to you.
Below is a guide to the types of some of the language learning materials and tools currently available.
Language courses | Dictionaries | Grammars | Phrasebooks | Flash cards | Audio books | Recording devices | Sound editors | Electronic translators
Language courses come in a variety of guises, including traditional ones, all audio ones, CD-ROMs and online ones.
The traditional ones tend to consist of textbooks containing dialogues, exercises, notes on grammar, and maybe cultural information. Accompanying cassettes, CDs and/or mp3s are often available.
Most such courses are intended for complete beginners or people with only minimal knowledge of the language. Intermediate and advanced-level courses are available for some of the more popular languages, such as French, German, Italian and Spanish.
Examples of this type of course include:
- available for 100 languages and include all audio courses, explorer courses for those who just want to learn the basics, and in-depth courses for more serious students.
and Colloquial
courses - these are similar and are available for a wide range of languages. They focus on teaching you everyday language, and introduce you to new alphabets or other writing systems where appropriate.This type of course usually consists solely of cassettes or CDs, though some may also include a limited amount of printed material. All dialogues, exercises, instructions and explanations are recorded and the focus of these courses is teaching you to understand and speak the language.
Examples of this type of course include:
Various language courses are available on CD-ROMs and DVDs. Each course is different but they generally include dialogues, audio, exercises and tests. Some also include phrasebooks, dictionaries, videos, games and provide online and/or telephone support.
Examples of these courses include:
- a range of language courses for many different languages. Their site also includes useful phrases, games, cultural information, articles, quizzes and proficiency tests.The Bilingualizer
The Bilingualize helps language students read and enjoy texts written in their original language. It ads a discrete word-by-word translation under the original text for the comfort of the student: a great help to build up your vocabulary while reading what you like!
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There are online language courses and lessons for just about every language you can think of. Many are free, while others require a one-off payment or a regular subscription.
There is considerable variation in the quality and quantity of the material available in each online course. Some of the free courses are excellent, while others are perhaps somewhat lacking in organisation and/or accuracy.
Links to online courses for many languages
Dictionaries come in a number of formats including bilingual, monolingual, illustrated, electronic and online. Bilingual dictionaries are perhaps the most useful ones for beginners and intermediate learners, while monolingual dictionaries, which are designed for native speakers, are also useful for advanced learners.
Pocket dictionaries are good for quick reference and easy to carry around. Larger dictionaries are better if you want more definitions, examples of usage, and information about pronunciation, grammar and possibly etymology.
Electronic dictionaries are available as handheld units, or as software. Handheld ones are portable, easy and quick to search, and often provide other functions, such as, text-to-speech, voice recognition and speech synthesis organisers, address books. They tend to be rather expensive though. Software dictionaries offer many of the same functions, and can be used on computers, PDAs and mobile phones.
More information about electronic dictionaries
Dictionaries for many languages are available from: Amazon.com
, Amazon.co.uk
andAmazon.fr
Online dictionaries range from simple lists of words, to sophisticated bilingual and multilingual dictionaries.
Links to online dictionaries for many languages
Grammars are useful reference tools and provide detailed information about grammar and usage. Some include exercises to help you practise the various aspects of grammar. Some language learners like to know exactly how the grammar of their L2 works and find grammars very useful. Others prefer to absorb the grammar through immersion without studying it formally.
Grammars for many languages are available from: Amazon.com
, Amazon.co.uk
andAmazon.fr
When visiting foreign parts, a phrasebook can come in very handy. Phrasebooks that come with recordings of phrases are particularly useful, as working out how to pronounce them from the written pronunciation hints is not easy.
Phrasebooks for many languages are available from: Amazon.com
, Amazon.co.uk
and Amazon.fr
Flash cards are a useful tool for learning vocabulary and grammar, if you look at them regularly. I found them particularly useful when learning Chinese characters. They might have a character, word, phrase or sentence on one side, and a translation, definition and/or notes on the other side. You can make them yourself, buy readymade sets of cards, or use flash card programs such as Anki, Mnemosyne and Supermemo.
Flash card programs are available from:
http://ichi2.net/anki/
http://mnemosyne-proj.sourceforge.net/
http://www.supermemo.com/
http://www.flashcardexchange.com
Listening to audio books in a language you're learning is a great way to improve your listening comprehension and vocabulary. If you can read printed versions of the books at the same time, even better. You could also use foreign audio books to learn a new skill or to learn about a subject that interests you through the medium of your L2.
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A recording device of some kind is a very useful tool to the language learner. You can use it to record conversations, radio programmes, songs, classes and lectures. Such recordings can help you to improve your listening comprehension. You can also make recordings of your own attempts to speak your L2, analysis of which can help you to improve your pronunciation and intonation. They also provide a snapshot of your speaking abilities, which you could use a later date to assess how much progress you've made.
Recording devices come in the form of tape recorders, mini-disc recorders, mp3 players with voice recording facilities, and dictation machines. The most convenient are those which can be connected to your computer so that you can transfer the recordings, edit them and/or copy them to another device.
Some recorders require an external microphone, another useful tool for language learners, while others have built-in microphones. The quality of recordings is generally better with external microphones.
It is also possible to make recordings on your computer using software such as Audacity (see below), or sites such as Odeo.
Once you've made recordings, you might need to edit them. Various programs that enable you to do so are available.
I use Audacity to make and edit recordings on my computer. It's free, fairly easy to use and has a range of functions, including changing the volume, speed or tempo of sound files, cutting out silences and background noise, adding fade-ins and fade-outs, and multi-track recording. You can also use it to listen audio files, or parts of them.
Audacity of available from: http://audacity.sourceforge.net/
Other free sound editors
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http://biphome.spray.se/baxtrom/soliton.htm
http://www.cockos.com/reaper/
http://www.nonags.com/nonags/auedit.html
http://www.wavosaur.com
http://www.code-it.com/KISS_free_wave_editor.htm
Electronic translators are available as handheld units, or as software. Handheld ones are portable, easy and quick to search, and often provide other functions, such as text-to-speech, voice recognition, speech synthesis, organisers and address books. They tend to be rather expensive though. Software dictionaries offer many of the same functions, and can be used on computers, PDAs and mobile phones.
More information about electronic dictionaries
Other language learning tips
Introduction | Why learn a language? | Which language? | How? | When? | General tips | Materials | Pronunciation | Vocabulary | Grammar | Writing systems | Chinese characters | FAQs | Useful foreign phrases | Language jobs | My language learning adventures
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"I'd like to learn a language, but don't really have the time." Does that statement sound at all familiar? If so then read on.
Carpe momentum - seizing the moment
During a typical day, there are usually times when you could fit in a bit of language study. Even if you only study for five or ten minutes at a time, it all adds up in the end. In fact it can be beneficial to spread your studies over a number short periods, rather than doing it all in one or two big chunks. The more often you practice and review material, the better you'll remember it and be able to use it.
Multitasking
If you commute to work or school/college/university every day, perhaps you could use that time for study. Other times you could use for study/practice include while preparing meals, washing dishes, doing house work, gardening, jogging, queueing, during your lunch break or at the gym.
The type of study or practice will depend on what else you're doing. In some cases you could listen to a lesson or two, or to other material such as songs, audio books, radio programmes, etc. In others you could practice reading and/or writing in your L2, or even practice speaking. If you want to practice your speaking in a public, perhaps you could pretend to talk on your mobile phone so that other people don't suspect your sanity and think you're talking to yourself.
Listen and learn
While working, maybe you could listen to online radio stations. Even if you don't listen to them very attentively, just having them burbling away in the background is benefical as it helps you to tune into the sounds and rhythms of your L2, and to pick up new words and phrases.
In a flash
Some language learners carry flashcards with them wherever they go, and whip them out whenever they have a spare moment. This can help you to learn vocabulary and grammar.
Putting your L2 to good use
Once you have reached an intermediate to advanced level in your L2, you might consider studying something else that interests you through the medium of the language. For example, if you're interested in the cusine of the country or region where your L2 is spoken, you could get some cookery books in the L2. This would enable you to improve your language skills, and to learn some new recipes at the same time.
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There are a number of different ways to study a language, each of which has advantages and disadvantages. You may find a combination of these is best for you.
Studying in your country
If you can find a course in the language(s) you want to learn in your country this is quite a good way to study. A variety of courses are usually available, including part-time and full-time courses, short intensive courses and courses leading to qualifications. If you look around you can probably find a course that suits your requirements.
The main advantage of such courses is that you'll have a teacher or tutor to provide you with instruction, support and feedback and with whom to practice your language. You will also be studying with others who are at more or less the same level and you can compare notes with them and help one another. Formal courses also help you to structure your studies.
Taking a course is not for everyone however - some people don't feel comfortable in a classroom environment and prefer to study at their own pace and when it suits them.
Studying abroad
One option is to study a language in a country where it's spoken. There are numerous schools teaching English, French, Spanish, Italian and German, but far fewer teaching other languages. The main advantage of studying abroad is that you are totally immersed in the language, not just in class, but the rest of the time as well. As a result, you should make fairly rapid progress. Another benefit of studying abroad is that you get to try the local cusine, to meet the locals and to sample the local culture.
The main disadvantage of studying abroad is the cost, not just of your course, but also of your accommodation, food and travel. This can work out considerably more than you'd spend studying a language in your own country.
If you're a native or fluent speaker of English, you could get a job teaching English in a country where the language you want to learn is spoken. This is good way to finance your studies.
For information about English teaching qualifications and jobs, see:
http://www.onlinetefl.com 
Online courses
If you cannot find a suitable taught course in your area and are unable to spare the time to study abroad, you could consider online courses. There are plenty to choose from in a wide range of languages. Many are free but some you have to pay for. Some of the paid ones provide support from tutors via email, chat programs, video conferencing, telephone or even face to face.
Links to many online language courses
There are many different courses designed for self-study available. These include textbooks, with or without cassettes or CDs, cassettes alone, videos, DVDs and CD-ROMs. Each type of course has its strengths and weaknesses which are discussed below.
Textbooks
If you want to learn how to read and write a language and are not bothered about speaking it, then all you need is a good textbook, a grammar and a dictionary.
Examples of this type of textbook include Peter Jones' excellent Learn Latin andLearn Ancient Greek, and Learn Russian by Ian Press.
Textbooks with cassettes or CDs
This type of course is probably the most popular and is designed to give you an all round knowledge of a language. Some courses focus more on colloquial language while others concentrate more on reading and writing. Most courses are intended for complete beginners or people with only minimal knowledge of the language. Intermediate and advanced level courses are available for some of the more popular languages, such as French, German, Italian and Spanish.
Examples of this type of course:
courses are available for 100 languages and include all audio courses, explorer courses for those who just want to learn the basics, and in-depth courses for more serious students.
and Colloquial
courses - these are similar and are available for a wide range of languages; focus on teaching you everyday language, and introduce you to new alphabets or other writing systems where appropriate. Each course consists of a course book containing dialogues, grammatical notes, exercises and cultural information, together with cassettes or CDs with recordings of most of the dialogues and some of the exercises. Most of these courses are suitable for beginners. Intermediate-level courses are also available for the more popular languages, such as French, German, Russian, Spanish and Italian.There are also Teach Yourself courses that introduce you to various writing systems, dictionaries, grammars and books about the culture of various countries.
All audio courses
This type of course usually consists solely of cassettes or CDs, though some may also include a limited amount of printed material. All dialogues, exercises, instructions and explanations are recorded and the focus of these courses is teaching you to understand and speak the language.
I have managed to do this to some extent for Welsh, Irish and Scottish Gaelic. Alhtough I have actively studied these languages and been on a number of short courses for the former two, I've mainly picked them up through listening to the radio and reading whatever material I come across. This is a way to immerse yourself in languages without living in an area where they're spoken.
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